Relationship: 309: Thyroperoxidase, Inhibition leads to TH synthesis, Decreased

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic: This KER is plausibly applicable across vertebrates. Inhibition of TPO activity is widely accepted to directly impact TH synthesis. This is true for both rats and humans, as well as some fishes, frogs and birds. Most of the data supporting a causative relationship between TPO inhibition and altered TH synthesis is derived from animal studies, in vitro thyroid microsomes from rats or pigs, and a limited number of human ex vivo (Nagasaka and Hidaka, 1976; Vickers et al., 2012) and clinical studies. There are data to support that gene mutations in TPO result in congenital hypothyroidism, underscoring the essential role of TPO in human thyroid hormone synthesis.

Life stage: Applicability to certain life stages may depend on the species and their dependence on maternally transferred thyroid hormones during the earliest phases of development. The earliest life stages of teleost fish rely on maternally transferred THs to regulate certain developmental processes until embryonic TH synthesis is active (Power et al., 2001). As a result, TPO inhibition is not expected to decrease TH synthesis during these earliest stages of development. In zebrafish, Opitz et al. (2011) showed the formation of a first thyroid follicle at 55 hours post fertilization (hpf), Chang et al. (2012) showed a first significant TH increase at 120 hpf and Walter et al. (2019) showed clear TH production already at 72 hpf but did not analyse time points between 24 and 72 hpf. In fathead minnows, a significant increase of whole body thyroid hormone levels was already observed between 1 and 2 dpf, which corresponds to the appearance of the thyroid anlage at 35 hpf prior to the first observation of thyroid follicles at 58 hpf (Wabuke-Bunoti and Firling, 1983). It is still uncertain when exactly embryonic TH synthesis is activated and how this determines sensitivity to TH disruptors.

Sex: The KE is plausibly applicable to both sexes. Thyroid hormones are essential in both sexes and the components of the HPT-axis are identical in both sexes. There can however be sex-dependent differences in the sensitivity to the disruption of thyroid hormone levels and the magnitude of the response. In humans, females appear more susceptible to hypothyroidism compared to males when exposed to certain halogenated chemicals (Hernandez‐Mariano et al., 2017; Webster et al., 2014). In adult zebrafish, Liu et al. (2019) showed sex-dependent changes in thyroid hormone levels and mRNA expression of regulatory genes including corticotropin releasing hormone (crh), thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) and deiodinase 2 after exposure to organophosphate flame retardants. The underlying mechanism of any sex-related differences remains unclear.

Key Event Relationship Description

Thyroperoxidase (TPO) is a heme-containing apical membrane protein within the follicular lumen of thyrocytes that acts as the enzymatic catalyst for thyroid hormone (TH) synthesis (Taurog, 2005) across vertebrates. Two commonly used reference chemicals, propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole (MMI), are drugs that inhibit the ability of TPO to: a) activate iodine and transfer it to thyroglobulin (Tg) (Davidson et al., 1978); and, b) couple thyroglobulin (Tg)-bound iodotyrosyls to produce Tg-bound thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) (Taurog, 2005).

Evidence Supporting this KER

The weight of evidence supporting a direct linkage between the MIE, TPO inhibition, and the KE of decreased TH synthesis, is strong and supported by more than three decades of research in animals, including humans (Cooper et al., 1982; Cooper et al.,1983; Divi and Doerge, 1994).

The biological plausibility for this KER is rated Strong. TPO is the only enzyme capable of de novo systhesis of TH. TPO catalyzes several reactions, including the oxidation of iodide, nonspecific iodination of tyrosyl residues of thyroglobulin (Tg) to form monoiodotyrosyl (MIT) or diiodotyrosyl (DIT) residues, and the coupling of these Tg-bound iodotyrosyls to produce Tg-bound T3 and T4 (Divi and Doerge, 1994; Kessler et al., 2008; Ruf et al., 2006; Taurog et al., 1996, 2005). Therefore, inhibition of TPO activity is widely accepted to directly impact TH synthesis.

Empirical support for this KER is strong. There are several papers that have measured alterations in TPO and subsequent effects on TH synthesis across vertebrates. Taurog et al. (1996) showed decreased guicaol activity, decreased bound I¹²⁵, and subsequent decreases in newly formed T3 and T4 per molecule of Tg, following exposure to PTU, MMI and some antibiotics.  There is important evidence in mammals. Following in vivo exposure to PTU in rats (Cooper et al., 1982; 1983), there are concentration and time-dependent decreases in thyroid protein bound iodine and serum T4 and T3 that recovered one month after cessation of PTU exposure.  In addition, measures of thyroidal iodine content were highly correlated with intra-thyroidal PTU concentration. Vickers et al. (2012) demonstrated dose- and time- dependent inhibition of TPO activity in both human and rat thyroid homogenates exposed to MMI. 

Tietge et al (2010) showed decreases in thyroidal T4 following MMI exposure in Xenopus.  Also in Xenopus, Haselman et al (2020) showed decreases in thyroidal iodotyrosines (MIT/DIT) and iodothyronines (T4/T3) following exposure to MMI. Doerge et al (1998) showed that a tryphenylmethane dye, malachite green, inhibited TPO and lowered thyroxine production. A recent paper used a series of benzothiazoles and showed TPO inhibition (guicaol assay) and inhibition of TSH stimulated thyroxine release from Xenopus thyroid gland explant cultures (Hornung et al., 2015). 

Additionally, evidence is available from studies investigating responses to TPO inhibitors in fish. For example, Stinckens et al. (2020) showed reduced whole body T4 concentrations in zebrafish larvae exposed to 50 or 100 mg/L methimazole, a potent TPO inhibitor, from immediately after fertilization until 21 or 32 days of age. Exposure to 37 or 111 mg/L propylthiouracil also reduced T4 levels after exposure up to 14, 21 and 32 days in the same study. Walter et al. (2019) showed that propylthiouracil had no effect on T4 levels in 24h old zebrafish, but decreased T4 levels of 72h old zebrafish. This difference is probably due to the onset of embryonic TH production between the age of 24 and 72 hours (Opitz et al., 2011). Stinckens et al. (2016) showed that exposure to 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), an environmentally relevant TPO inhibitor, decreased whole body T4 levels in continuously exposed 5 and 32 day old zebrafish larvae. Several other studies have also shown that chemically induced Inhibition of TPO results in reduced TH synthesis in zebrafish (Van der Ven et al., 2006; Raldua and Babin, 2009; Liu et al., 2011; Thienpont et al., 2011; Rehberger et al., 2018). A high concentration of MBT also decreased whole body T4 levels in 6 day old fathead minnows, but recovery was observed at the age of 21 days although the fish were kept in the exposure medium (Nelson et al., 2016). Crane et al. (2006) showed decreased T4 levels in 28 day old fathead minnows continuously exposed to 32 or 100 µg/L methimazole.

Temporal Evidence: In mammals, the temporal nature of this KER is applicable to all life stages, including development (Seed et al., 2005). The impact of decreased TPO activity on thyroidal hormone synthesis is similar across all ages in mammals. Good evidence for the temporal relationship of the KER comes from thyroid system modeling (e.g., Degon et al., 2008; Fisher et al., 2013) using data from studies of iodine deficiency and chemicals that inhibit NIS. In addition, there is ample evidence of the temporal impacts of TPO inhibition on TH synthesis, using ex vivo and in vitro measures that demonstrate the time course of inhibition following chemical exposures, including some data from human thyroid microsomes and ex vivo thyroid slices (Vickers et al., 2012). Future work is needed that measures both TPO inhibition and TH production during development. 

In oviparous fish such as zebrafish and fathead minnow, the nature of this KER depends on the life stage since the earliest stages of embryonic development rely on maternal thyroid hormones transferred to the eggs. Embryonic thyroid hormone synthesis is activated later during embryo-larval development. (See Domain of applicability)

Dose-Response Evidence: Dose-response data is available from a number of studies in mammals that correlate TPO inhibition with decreased TH production measured using a variety of endpoints including iodine organification (e.g., Taurog et al., 1996), inhibition of guicaol oxidation in thyroid microsomes (e.g., Doerge and Chang, 2002), and direct measure of thyroid gland T4 concentrations (e.g., Hornung et al., 2015). However, there is a lack of dose-response data from developmental studies showing direct linkages from TPO inhibition to thyroidal TH synthesis.

While it is clear that TPO inhibition will lead to altered hormone synthesis, there is a need for data that will inform quantitative modeling of the relationship between TPO inhibition and the magnitude of effects on thyroid hormone synthesis.

Data from studies on genistein highlight this uncertainty. Doerge and colleagues have demonstrated that for this compound up to 80% TPO inhibition did not result in decreased serum T4 in rats (Doerge and Chang, 2002). This is not consistent with other prototypical TPO inhibitors (e.g., PTU, MMI). Genistein is however a well-known phytoestrogen and the observed inconsistency may be the result of feedback mechanisms resulting from its estrogenic effect.

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

In Xenopus laevis, Haselman et al.(2020) demonstrated temporal profiles of thyroidal iodotyrosines (MIT/DIT) and iodothyronines (T4/T3), the products of TPO activity, following exposure to three different model TPO inhibitors (MMI, PTU, MBT) at multiple concentrations. This study established that, in Xenopus, measurable decreases in the products of TPO activity can occur as early as 2 days of exposure during pro-metamorphosis. However, despite consistent profiles of some iodo-species across chemicals, other iodo-species showed inconsistent profiles across chemicals. This highlights the multiple mechanisms of TPO (iodination and coupling) and differential susceptiblity to inhibition of those mechanisms depending on the chemical's type of interaction with TPO. The most consistent concentration-response relationship across chemicals and over time was demonstrated by thyroidal T4, which is the most relevant product to subsequent key events. At the highest concentrations tested for each chemcial, thyroidal T4 was below detection by 7 days of exposure across all three TPO inhibitors. Keeping in mind that the thyroid gland has follicular lumen space where thyroglobulin/T4 is stored until proteolysis and release to the blood, full inhibition of TPO would result in a delayed measureable response due to the time it takes to deplete stored hormone. Regardless of the delay, the results from this study imply full inhibition of TPO by each of these three chemicals at the highest test concentrations, but would require chemical residue analysis and/or toxicokinetic modeling to relate cellular/tissue concentrations at the site of TPO catalysis to levels of inhibition via Michaelis-Menten kinetic descriptions.

Profiles of thyroidal iodinated species demonstrated by Haselman et al. (2020) across three different TPO inhibitors suggests that a high level of TPO inhibition must occur in order to elicit responses in subsequent key events. Although the level of TPO inhibition is not directly quantifiable from this study, these data suggest that at least 90-100% inhibition was occurring since circulating T4 was not detectable at 10 days of exposure to the highest concentrations of MMI and MBT. However, additional efforts would be necessary to determine the minimum level of TPO inhibition that leads to a measurable decrease in thyroidal T4 and subsequently circulating T4.       

There are only a limited number of studies where both TPO inhibition and iodine organification have been measured in vivo, and there are not enough data available to make any definitive quantitative correlations. One in vivo study in rats exposed to the TPO inhibitor genistein found no in vivo impact on serum thyroid hormone concentrations, even when TPO was inhibited up to 80% (Chang and Doerge, 2000). Genistein is however a well-known phytoestrogen and the observed inconsistency may be the result of feedback mechanisms resulting from its estrogenic effect.

Given that this is an MIE to KE relationship, there is only one response to evaluate in the relationship. Decreased TH synthesis, as measured by responses of iodinated species in the thyroid gland, is the result of TPO inhibition, which cannot be measured directly in vivo.

In vivo, evaluations of TPO inhibition are limited to evaluation of the iodinated species, or products of TPO activity, present in the thyroid gland at a particular time. However, as stated previously, any measurable response in these iodinated species is not a discreet assessment of TPO activity given that the gland maintains storage of hormone in the follicular lumen space and any alteration of TPO activity would be detected once the stores begin to be depleted. In Xenopus laevis, Haselman et al. (2020) showed a decrease in thyroidal iodinated species after only 2 days of exposure to potent TPO inhibitor MMI during thyroid-mediated metamorphosis and within 4 days for PTU and MBT, both model TPO inhibitors. In zebrafish, Walter et al. (2019) reported a similar time frame, namely a decrease in T4 levels at 72 hpf after starting the exposure to PTU at 0-2 hpf. It should be noted that the time-scale is probably depending on the developmental stage and whether the embryo is capable of thyroid hormone synthesis, rather than on the exposure duration.

Iodine availability will impact the ability of TPO to iodinate tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin. Iodine availability to TPO can be impacted a number of ways. First, environmental availability of iodine can vary greatly depending on whether and how much iodine exists in surface waters for aquatic organisms (gill respirators) and in the diets of both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Second, somewhat regardless of iodine availability through environmental uptake (i.e., barring extremely high iodine exposure), iodine is actively transported into the thyroid follicular cell from the blood via sodium-iodide symporter (NIS), which has been shown to be susceptible to inhibition by, for example, perchlorate. As such, iodine availability to TPO is mediated by functional NIS. Finally, iodine is not fully available to TPO on the apical surface of the thyroid follicular cell until it is transported through the apical membrane by pendrin, an anion exchange protein - mutations or inhibition of pendrin could affect iodine availability to TPO.

Hydrogen peroxide is also needed by TPO to mediate the oxidation of iodide, which is produced locally by dual oxidase (DUOX). A mutation or inhibition of DUOX will impact local production of H₂O₂ leading to lower oxidizing potential of TPO and less organification of iodide.  

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) released from the pituitary positively regulates the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland. As such, when TPO is inhibited and thyroid hormone synthesis is decreased, lower systemic levels of hormone cause feedback from the pituitary via TSH to upregulate a number of processes in the thyroid gland as a means of compensation, including (but not limited to) enhanced gene expression of NIS and thyrocyte cell proliferation (Tietge et al., 2010; Haselman et al., 2020).  

References

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Chang, J., Wang, M., Gui, W., Zhao, Y., Yu, L., Zhu, G., 2012. Changes in Thyroid Hormone Levels during Zebrafish Development. Zoological Science 29, 181-184.

Cooper DS, Kieffer JD, Halpern R, Saxe V, Mover H, Maloof F, Ridgway EC (1983) Propylthiouracil (PTU) pharmacology in the rat. II. Effects of PTU on thyroid function. Endocrinology 113:921-928.

Cooper DS, Saxe VC, Meskell M, Maloof F, Ridgway EC. Acute effects of propylthiouracil (PTU) on thyroidal iodide organification and peripheral iodothyronine deiodination: correlation with serum PTU levels measured by radioimmunoassay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 54(1):101-7.

Crane HM, Pickford DB, Hutchinson TH, Brown JA. 2006. The effects of methimazole on development of the fathead minnow, pimephales promelas, from embryo to adult. Toxicological Sciences. 93(2):278-285.

Davidson, B., Soodak, M., Neary, J.T., Strout, H.V., and Kieffer, J.D. (1978). The irreversible inactivation of thyroid peroxidase by methylmercaptoimidazole, thiouracil, and propylthiouracil in vitro and its relationship to in vivo findings. Endocrinology 103:871–882.

Divi, R. L., and Doerge, D. R. (1994). Mechanism-based inactivation of lactoperoxidase and thyroid peroxidase by resorcinol derivatives. Biochemistry 33(32), 9668-74.

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Doerge DR, Chang HC.  Inactivation of thyroid peroxidase by soy isoflavones, in vitro and in vivo.  J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2002 Sep 25;777(1-2):269-79

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Liu XS, Cai Y, Wang Y, Xu SH, Ji K, Choi K. 2019. Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (tdcpp) and triphenyl phosphate (tpp) on sex-dependent alterations of thyroid hormones in adult zebrafish. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 170:25-32.

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Rehberger, K., Baumann, L., Hecker, M., Braunbeck, T., 2018. Intrafollicular thyroid hormone staining in whole-mount zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos for the detection of thyroid hormone synthesis disruption. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 44, 997-1010.

Ruf, J., and Carayon, P. (2006). Structural and functional aspects of thyroid peroxidase. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics 445(2), 269-77, 10.1016/j.abb.2005.06.023.

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Stinckens E, Vergauwen L, Schroeder A, Maho W, Blackwell B, Witters H, Blust R, Ankley G, Covaci A, Villeneuve D et al. 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part ii: Zebrafish. Aquatic Toxicology. 173:204-217.

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Taurog, A., Dorris, M. L., and Doerge, D. R. (1996). Mechanism of simultaneous iodination and coupling catalyzed by thyroid peroxidase. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics 330(1), 24-32,

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Relationship: 305: TH synthesis, Decreased leads to T4 in serum, Decreased

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic: This KER is plausibly applicable across vertebrates. While a majority of the empirical evidence comes from work with laboratory rodents, there is a large amount of supporting data from humans (with anti-hyperthyroidism drugs including propylthiouracil and methimazole), some amphibian species (e.g., frog), fish species (e.g., zebrafish and fathead minnow), and some avian species (e.g, chicken).  The following are samples from a large literature that supports this concept: Cooper et al. (1982; 1983); Hornung et al. (2010); Van Herck et al. (2013); Paul et al. (2013); Nelson et al. (2016); Alexander et al. (2017); Stinckens et al. (2020).

Life stage: Applicability to certain life stages may depend on the species and their dependence on maternally transferred thyroid hormones during the earliest phases of development. The earliest life stages of teleost fish rely on maternally transferred THs to regulate certain developmental processes until embryonic TH synthesis is active (Power et al., 2001). As a result, TPO inhibition is not expected to decrease TH synthesis during these earliest stages of development. In zebrafish, Opitz et al. (2011) showed the formation of a first thyroid follicle at 55 hours post fertilization (hpf), Chang et al. (2012) showed a first significant TH increase at 120 hpf and Walter et al. (2019) showed clear TH production already at 72 hpf but did not analyse time points between 24 and 72 hpf. In fathead minnows, a significant increase of whole body thyroid hormone levels was already observed between 1 and 2 dpf, which corresponds to the appearance of the thyroid anlage at 35 hpf prior to the first observation of thyroid follicles at 58 hpf (Wabuke-Bunoti and Firling, 1983). It is still uncertain when exactly embryonic TH synthesis is activated and how this determines sensitivity to TH disruptors.

Sex: The KE is plausibly applicable to both sexes. Thyroid hormones are essential in both sexes and the components of the HPT-axis are identical in both sexes. There can however be sex-dependent differences in the sensitivity to the disruption of thyroid hormone levels and the magnitude of the response. In humans, females appear more susceptible to hypothyroidism compared to males when exposed to certain halogenated chemicals (Hernandez‐Mariano et al., 2017; Webster et al., 2014). In adult zebrafish, Liu et al. (2019) showed sex-dependent changes in thyroid hormone levels and mRNA expression of regulatory genes including corticotropin releasing hormone (crh), thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) and deiodinase 2 after exposure to organophosphate flame retardants. The underlying mechanism of any sex-related differences remains unclear.

Key Event Relationship Description

Thyroid hormones (THs), thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are synthesized by NIS and TPO in the thyroid gland as iodinated thyroglobulin (Tg) and stored in the colloid of thyroid follicles across vertebrates. Secretion from the follicle into serum is a multi-step process. The first involves thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulation of the separation of the peptide linkage between Tg and TH. The next steps involve endocytosis of colloid, fusion of the endosome with the basolateral membrane of the thyrocyte, and finally release of TH into blood. More detailed descriptions of this process can be found in reviews by Braverman and Utiger (2012) and Zoeller et al. (2007).

Evidence Supporting this KER

The weight of evidence linking these two KEs of decreased TH synthesis and decreased T4 in serum is strong. It is commonly accepted dogma that decreased synthesis in the thyroid gland will result in decreased circulating TH (serum T4).

The biological relationship between two KEs in this KER is well understood and documented fact within the scientific community.

It is widely accepted that TPO inhibition leads to declines in serum T4 levels in adult mammals. This is due to the fact that the sole source for circulating T4 derives from hormone synthesis in the thyroid gland. Indeed, it has been known for decades that insufficient dietary iodine will lead to decreased serum TH concentrations due to inadequate synthesis. Strong qualitative and quantitative relationships exist between reduced TH synthesis and reduced serum T4 (Ekerot et al., 2013; Degon et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 1982; 1983; Leonard et al., 2016; Zoeller and Tan, 2007).  There is more limited evidence supporting the relationship between decreased TH synthesis and lowered circulating hormone levels during development.  Lu and Anderson (1994) followed the time course of TH synthesis, measured as thyroxine secretion rate, in non-treated pregnant rats and correlated it with serum T4 levels More recently, modeling of TH in the rat fetus demonstrates the quantitative relationship between TH synthesis and serum T4 concentrations (Hassan et al., 2017). Furthermore, a wide variety of drugs and chemicals that inhibit TPO are known to result in decreased release of TH from the thyroid gland, as well as decreased circulating TH concentrations. This is evidenced by a very large number of studies that employed a wide variety of techniques, including thyroid gland explant cultures, tracing organification of 131-I and in vivo treatment of a variety of animal species with known TPO inhibitors (King and May,1984; Atterwill et al., 1990; Brown et al., 1986; Brucker-Davis, 1998; Haselman et al., 2020; Hornung et al., 2010; Hurley et al., 1998; Kohrle, 2008; Tietge et al., 2010).

Additionally, evidence is available from studies investigating responses to TPO inhibitors in fish. For example, Stinckens et al. (2020) showed reduced whole body T4 concentrations in zebrafish larvae exposed to 50 or 100 mg/L methimazole, a potent TPO inhibitor, from immediately after fertilization until 21 or 32 days of age. Exposure to 37 or 111 mg/L propylthiouracil also reduced T4 levels after exposure up to 14, 21 and 32 days in the same study. Walter et al. (2019) showed that propylthiouracil had no effect on T4 levels in 24h old zebrafish, but decreased T4 levels of 72h old zebrafish. This difference is probably due to the onset of embryonic TH production between the age of 24 and 72 hours (Opitz et al., 2011). Stinckens et al. (2016) showed that exposure to 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), an environmentally relevant TPO inhibitor, decreased whole body T4 levels in continuously exposed 5 and 32 day old zebrafish larvae. Several other studies have also shown that chemically induced Inhibition of TPO results in reduced TH synthesis in zebrafish (Van der Ven et al., 2006; Raldua and Babin, 2009; Liu et al., 2011; Thienpont et al., 2011; Rehberger et al., 2018). A high concentration of MBT also decreased whole body T4 levels in 6 day old fathead minnows, but recovery was observed at the age of 21 days although the fish were kept in the exposure medium (Nelson et al., 2016). Crane et al. (2006) showed decreased T4 levels in 28 day old fathead minnows continuously exposed to 32 or 100 µg/L methimazole.

Temporal Evidence: In mammals, the temporal nature of this KER is applicable to all life stages, including development (Seed et al., 2005).  There are currently no studies that measured both TPO synthesis and TH production during development. However, the impact of decreased TH synthesis on serum hormones is similar across all ages in mammals. Good evidence for the temporal relationship comes from thyroid system modeling of the impacts of iodine deficiency and NIS inhibition (e.g., Degon et al., 2008; Fisher et al., 2013). In addition, recovery experiments have demonstrated that serum thyroid hormones recovered in athyroid mice following grafting of in-vitro derived follicles (Antonica et al., 2012). In Xenopus, it has been shown that depression of TH synthesis in the thyroid gland precedes depression of circulating TH within 7 days of exposure during pro-metamorphosis (Haselman et al., 2020).   

In oviparous fish such as zebrafish and fathead minnow, the nature of this KER depends on the life stage since the earliest stages of embryonic development rely on maternal thyroid hormones transferred to the eggs. Embryonic thyroid hormone synthesis is activated later during embryo-larval development. (See Domain of applicability)

Dose-response Evidence: Dose-response data is lacking from studies that include concurrent measures of both TH synthesis and serum TH concentrations. However, data is available demonstrating correlations between thyroidal TH and serum TH concentrations during gestation and lactation during development (Gilbert et al., 2013). This data was used to develop a rat quantitative biologically-based dose-response model for iodine deficiency (Fisher et al., 2013). In Xenopus, dose-responses were demonstrated in both thyroidal T4 and circulating T4 following exposure to three TPO inhibitors (Haselman et al., 2020).

There are no inconsistencies in this KER, but there are some uncertainties. The first uncertainty stems from the paucity of data for quantitative modeling of the relationship between the degree of synthesis decrease and resulting changes in circulating T4 concentrations. In addition, most of the data supporting this KER comes from inhibition of TPO, and there are a number of other processes (e.g., endocytosis, lysosomal fusion, basolateral fusion and release) that are not as well studied.

For example, Kim et al. (2015) investigated the adverse effects of Triphenyl phosphate (TPP), a substance that disrupts the thyroid system.
Therefore, Rat pituitary (GH3) and thyroid follicular cell lines (FRTL-5) were studied. In the GH3 cells, TPP led to an upregulation of the expression of important thyroid genes (tshˇ, tr˛ and trˇ) while T3, a positive control, downregulated the expression of these genes. In FRTL-5 cells, the expression of nis and tpo genes was significantly upregulated,
suggesting that TPP stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis in the thyroid gland.

In zebrafish larvae at the age of 7 days post-fertilisation (dpf), TPP exposure resulted in a significant increase in T3 and T4 concentrations and the expression of genes involved in thyroid hormone synthesis. Exposure to TPP also significantly regulated the expression of genes involved in the metabolism (dio1), transport (ttr) and excretion
(ugt1ab) of thyroid hormones. The down-regulation of the crh and tshˇ genes in the zebrafish larvae
suggests the activation of a central regulatory feedback mechanism that is triggered by the increased T3 levels in
vivo. Taken together, these observations indicate that TPP increases thyroid hormone concentrations
in early life stages of zebrafish by disrupting central regulatory and hormone synthesis pathways.

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

In rats, Hassan et al. (2020) demonstrated in vitro:ex vivo correlations of TPO inhibition using PTU and MMI and constructed a quantitative model relating level of TPO inhibition with changes in circulating T4 levels. They determined that 30% inhibition of TPO was sufficient to decrease circulating T4 levels by 20%.

In Xenopus, Haselman et al. (2020) collected temporal and dose-response data for both thyroidal and circulating T4 which showed strong qualitative concordance of the response-response relationship. A quantitative relationship exists therein, but is yet to be demonstrated mathematically in this species. 

Fisher et al. (2013) published a quantitative biologically-based dose-response model for iodine deficiency in the rat. This model provides quantitative relationships for thyroidal T4 synthesis (iodine organification) and predictions of serum T4 concentrations in developing rats. There are other computational models that include thyroid hormone synthesis. Ekerot et al. (2012) modeled TPO, T3, T4 and TSH in dogs and humans based on exposure to myeloperoxidase inhibitors that also inhibit TPO.  This model was recently adapted for rat (Leonard et al., 2016) and Hassan et al (2017) have extended it to include the pregnant rat dam in response to TPO inhibition induced by PTU. While the original model predicted serum TH and TSH levels as a function of oral dose, it was not used to explicitly predict the relationship between serum hormones and TPO inhibition, or thyroidal hormone synthesis. Leonard et al. (2016) recently incorporated TPO inhibition into the model. Degon et al (2008) developed a human thyroid model that includes TPO, but does not make quantitative prediction of organification changes due to inhibition of the TPO enzyme. Further empirical support for the response-response relationship has been demonstrated in the amphibian model, Xenopus laevis, exposed to TPO inhibitors during pro-metamorphosis (Haselman et al., 2020) wherein temporal profiles were measured for both thyroidal and circulating T4.

Given that the thyroid gland contains follicular lumen space filled with stored thyroglobulin/T4, complete inhibition of thyroid hormone synthesis at a given point in time will not result in an instantaneous decrease in circulating T4. The system will be capable of maintaining sufficient circulating T4 levels until the gland stores are depleted. The time it takes to deplete stored hormone will greatly depend on species, developmental status and numerous other factors.

In Xenopus, Haselman et al. (2020) demonstrated an approximately 5 day difference between a significant decrease in thyroidal T4 preceding a significant decrease in circulating T4 while exposed to a potent TPO inhibitor (MMI) continuously during pro-metamorphosis.   

During Xenopus metamorphosis, circulating T4 steadily increases to peak levels at metamorphic climax. Therefore, during Xenopus metamorphosis, this KER is operable at an increased rate as compared to a system that is maintaining steady circulating T4 levels through homeostatic control. In this case, developmental status is a modulating factor for the rates and trajectories of these KEs. 

This KER is entirely influenced by the feedback loop between circulating T4 originating from the thyroid gland and circulating TSH originating from the pituitary. Intermediate biochemical processes exist within the hypothalamus to affirm feedback and coordinately release TSH from the pituitary. However, quantitative representations of these feedback processes are limited to models discussed previously.

In Xenopus, circulating levels of T4 increase through pro-metamorphosis indicating a "release" of feedback to allow circulating levels of T4 to increase and drive metamorphic changes (Sternberg et al., 2011). This provides evidence that homeostatic control of feedback can be developmentally dependent, and likely species dependent.  

References

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Braverman, L.E. and Utiger, R.D. (2012). Werner and Ingbar's The Thyroid: A Fundamental and Clinical Text (10 ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 775-786. ISBN 978-1451120639.

Brown CG, Fowler KL, Nicholls PJ, Atterwill C. Assessment of thyrotoxicity using in vitro cell culture systems. Food Chem Toxicol. 1986 24(6-7):557-62.

Brucker-Davis F. Effects of environmental synthetic chemicals on thyroid function. Thyroid. 1998 8(9):827-56.

Chang J, Wang M, Gui W, Zhao Y, Yu L, Zhu G. 2012. Changes in thyroid hormone levels during zebrafish development. Zoological Science. 29(3):181-184.

Cooper DS, Kieffer JD, Halpern R, Saxe V, Mover H, Maloof F, Ridgway EC (1983) Propylthiouracil (PTU) pharmacology in the rat. II. Effects of PTU on thyroid function. Endocrinology 113:921-928.

Cooper DS, Saxe VC, Meskell M, Maloof F, Ridgway EC.Acute effects of propylthiouracil (PTU) on thyroidal iodide organification and peripheral iodothyronine deiodination: correlation with serum PTU levels measured by radioimmunoassay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 54(1):101-7.

Crane HM, Pickford DB, Hutchinson TH, Brown JA. 2006. The effects of methimazole on development of the fathead minnow, pimephales promelas, from embryo to adult. Toxicological Sciences. 93(2):278-285.

Degon, M., Chipkin, S.R., Hollot, C.V., Zoeller, R.T., and Chait, Y. (2008). A computational model of the human thyroid. Mathematical Biosciences 212, 22–53

Ekerot P, Ferguson D, Glämsta EL, Nilsson LB, Andersson H, Rosqvist S, Visser SA. Systems pharmacology modeling of drug-induced modulation of thyroid hormones in dogs and translation to human. Pharm Res. 2013 30(6):1513-24.

Fisher JW, Li S, Crofton K, Zoeller RT, McLanahan ED, Lumen A, Gilbert ME.  Evaluation of iodide deficiency in the lactating rat and pup using a biologically based dose-response model. Toxicol Sci. 2013 132(1):75-86.

Gilbert ME, Hedge JM, Valentín-Blasini L, Blount BC, Kannan K, Tietge J, Zoeller RT, Crofton KM, Jarrett JM, Fisher JW.  An animal model of marginal iodine deficiency during development: the thyroid axis and neurodevelopmental outcome.  Toxicol Sci. 2013 132(1):177-95.

Haselman, J.T., Olker, J.H., Kosian, P.A., Korte, J.J., Swintek, J.A., Denny, J.S., Nichols, J.W., Tietge, J.E., Hornung, M.W. and Degitz, S.J., 2020. Targeted pathway-based in vivo testing using thyroperoxidase inhibition to evaluate plasma thyroxine as a surrogate metric of metamorphic success in model amphibian Xenopus laevis. Toxicological Sciences, 175(2), pp.236-250.

Hassan, I, El-Masri, H., Kosian, PA, Ford, J, Degitz, SJ and Gilbert, ME. Quantitative Adverse Outcome Pathway for Neurodevelopmental Effects of Thyroid Peroxidase-Induced Thyroid Hormone Synthesis Inhibition. Toxicol Sci. 2017 Nov 1;160(1):57-73

Hassan, I., El-Masri, H., Ford, J., Brennan, A., Handa, S., Paul Friedman, K. and Gilbert, M.E., 2020. Extrapolating in vitro screening assay data for thyroperoxidase inhibition to predict serum thyroid hormones in the rat. Toxicological Sciences, 173(2), pp.280-292.

Hernandez-Mariano JA, Torres-Sanchez L, Bassol-Mayagoitia S, Escamilla-Nunez M, Cebrian ME, Villeda-Gutierrez EA, Lopez-Rodriguez G, Felix-Arellano EE, Blanco-Munoz J. 2017. Effect of exposure to p,p '-dde during the first half of pregnancy in the maternal thyroid profile of female residents in a mexican floriculture area. Environmental Research. 156:597-604.

Hornung MW, Degitz SJ, Korte LM, Olson JM, Kosian PA, Linnum AL, Tietge JE. Inhibition of thyroid hormone release from cultured amphibian thyroid glands by methimazole, 6-propylthiouracil, and perchlorate. Toxicol Sci. 2010 118(1):42-51.

Hurley PM. Mode of carcinogenic action of pesticides inducing thyroid follicular cell tumors in rodents. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 106(8):437-45.

Kim, S., Jung, J., Lee, I., Jung, D., Youn, H., & Choi, K. (2015). Thyroid disruption by triphenyl phosphate, an organophosphate flame retardant, in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos/larvae, and in GH3 and FRTL-5 cell lines. Aquatic Toxicology, 160, 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.01.016

King DB, May JD. Thyroidal influence on body growth. J Exp Zool. 1984 Dec;232(3):453-60.

Köhrle J. Environment and endocrinology: the case of thyroidology. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2008 69(2):116-22.

Leonard JA, Tan YM, Gilbert M, Isaacs K, El-Masri H. Estimating margin of exposure to thyroid peroxidase inhibitors using high-throughput in vitro data, high-throughput exposure modeling, and physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling. Toxicol Sci. 2016 151(1):57-70.

Liu CS, Zhang XW, Deng J, Hecker M, Al-Khedhairy A, Giesy JP, Zhou BS. 2011. Effects of prochloraz or propylthiouracil on the cross-talk between the hpg, hpa, and hpt axes in zebrafish. Environmental Science & Technology. 45(2):769-775.

Liu XS, Cai Y, Wang Y, Xu SH, Ji K, Choi K. 2019. Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (tdcpp) and triphenyl phosphate (tpp) on sex-dependent alterations of thyroid hormones in adult zebrafish. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 170:25-32.

Lu, M-H, and Anderson, RR. Thyroxine secretion rats during pregnancy in the rat.  Endo Res. 1994. 20(4):343-364.

Nelson K, Schroeder A, Ankley G, Blackwell B, Blanksma C, Degitz S, Flynn K, Jensen K, Johnson R, Kahl M et al. 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part i: Fathead minnow. Aquatic Toxicology. 173:192-203.

Opitz R, Maquet E, Zoenen M, Dadhich R, Costagliola S. 2011. Tsh receptor function is required for normal thyroid differentiation in zebrafish. Molecular Endocrinology. 25(9):1579-1599.

Paul KB, Hedge JM, Macherla C, Filer DL, Burgess E, Simmons SO, Crofton KM, Hornung MW. Cross-species analysis of thyroperoxidase inhibition by xenobiotics demonstrates conservation of response between pig and rat. Toxicology. 2013. 312:97-107.

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Rehberger K, Baumann L, Hecker M, Braunbeck T. 2018. Intrafollicular thyroid hormone staining in whole-mount zebrafish (danio rerio) embryos for the detection of thyroid hormone synthesis disruption. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry. 44(3):997-1010.

Sternberg, R.M., Thoemke, K.R., Korte, J.J., Moen, S.M., Olson, J.M., Korte, L., Tietge, J.E. and Degitz Jr, S.J., 2011. Control of pituitary thyroid-stimulating hormone synthesis and secretion by thyroid hormones during Xenopus metamorphosis. General and comparative endocrinology, 173(3), pp.428-437.

Stinckens E, Vergauwen L, Blackwell BR, Anldey GT, Villeneuve DL, Knapen D. 2020. Effect of thyroperoxidase and deiodinase inhibition on anterior swim bladder inflation in the zebrafish. Environmental Science & Technology. 54(10):6213-6223.

Stinckens E, Vergauwen L, Schroeder A, Maho W, Blackwell B, Witters H, Blust R, Ankley G, Covaci A, Villeneuve D et al. 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part ii: Zebrafish. Aquatic Toxicology. 173:204-217.

Thienpont B, Tingaud-Sequeira A, Prats E, Barata C, Babin PJ, Raldua D. 2011. Zebrafish eleutheroembryos provide a suitable vertebrate model for screening chemicals that impair thyroid hormone synthesis. Environmental Science & Technology. 45(17):7525-7532.

Tietge, J.E., Butterworth, B.C., Haselman, J.T., Holcombe, G.W., Hornung, M.W., Korte, J.J., Kosian, P.A., Wolfe, M. and Degitz, S.J., 2010. Early temporal effects of three thyroid hormone synthesis inhibitors in Xenopus laevis. Aquatic Toxicology, 98(1), pp.44-50.

van der Ven LTM, van den Brandhof EJ, Vos JH, Power DM, Wester PW. 2006. Effects of the antithyroid agent propylthiouracil in a partial life cycle assay with zebrafish. Environmental Science & Technology. 40(1):74-81.

Van Herck SL, Geysens S, Delbaere J, Darras VM.  Regulators of thyroid hormone availability and action in embryonic chicken brain development. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2013. 190:96-104.

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Webster GM, Venners SA, Mattman A, Martin JW. 2014. Associations between perfluoroalkyl acids (pfass) and maternal thyroid hormones in early pregnancy: A population-based cohort study. Environmental Research. 133:338-347.

Zoeller, R. T., Tan, S. W., and Tyl, R. W. (2007). General background on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis. Critical reviews in toxicology 37(1-2), 11-53.

Relationship: 2038: T4 in serum, Decreased leads to Decreased, Triiodothyronine (T3) in serum

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic: Thyroid follicles mainly produce T4 and to a lesser extent T3 across vertebrates. When serum T4 levels are decreased, less T4 is available for conversion to the more biologically active T3. This key event relationship is not always evident. This could be due to feedback/compensatory mechanisms that in some cases seem to be able to maintain T3 levels even though T4 levels are reduced, for example through increased conversion of T4 to T3 by deiodinases. These feedback mechanisms can also differ across species. Therefore, although this KER is plausibly applicable across vertebrates, variation can be expected. In zebrafish and fathead minnow, several studies reportedThe evidence for a relationship between circulating T4 and T3 levels (Nelson et al., 2016; Stinckens et al., 2020, Wang et al., 2020).

Life stage: This key event relationship is applicable to late larvae and juveniles rather than to embryos, because of the presence of maternal TH in embryos.

Uncertainties during embryonic lifestage:

• A decrease in T4 was observed in fathead minnows exposed to 1 mg/L 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, through 6 dpf (Nelson et al., 2016). In contrast, there was no observed effect on T3 in fathead minnows exposed to MBT through 6 dpf. Comparably, zebrafish exposed to 0.4 or 0.7 mg/L MBT through 120 hpf showed decreased T4 but not T3 (Stinckens et al., 2016). During this early larval life stage, T3 may have been derived from maternal T4. In addition, it could be produced from further depletion of any T4 still produced by the thyroid gland (as thyroperoxidase may not have been fully inhibited at the tested exposure concentrations).
• Since exposure to PFAS did result in decreased whole-body T4 and T3 in 5 day old zebrafish, the life-stage specificity possibly depends on the mechanism that lies at the basis of the TH changes (Wang et al., 2020). The exact mechanisms by which PFAS disrupt the thyroid hormone system remain uncertain. Compounds that directly reduce T3 levels (e.g., deiodinase inhibitors) in addition to reducing T4 levels via another mechanism can be expected to result in decreased T4 and T3 levels.

Sex: The KE is plausibly applicable to both sexes. Thyroid hormones are essential in both sexes and the components of the HPT-axis are identical in both sexes. There can however be sex-dependent differences in the sensitivity to the disruption of thyroid hormone levels and the magnitude of the response. In humans, females appear more susceptible to hypothyroidism compared to males when exposed to certain halogenated chemicals (Hernandez‐Mariano et al., 2017; Webster et al., 2014). In adult zebrafish, Liu et al. (2019) showed sex-dependent changes in thyroid hormone levels and mRNA expression of regulatory genes including corticotropin releasing hormone (crh), thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) and deiodinase 2 after exposure to organophosphate flame retardants. The underlying mechanism of any sex-related differences remains unclear.

Key Event Relationship Description

When serum thyroxine (T4) levels are decreased, less T4 is available for conversion to the more biologically active triiodothyronine (T3). While some thyroid hormone (TH) disrupting mechanisms can immediately affect T3 levels, including deiodinase inhibition, other mechanisms reduce T4 levels, for example through inhibition of TH synthesis, leading to decreased T3 levels.

Since in fish early life stages TH are typically measured on a whole body level, it is currently uncertain whether TH levels changes occur at the serum and/or tissue level. Pending more dedicated studies, whole body TH levels are considered a proxy for serum TH levels.

This key event relationship is not always evident. This could be due to feedback/compensatory mechanisms that in some cases seem to be able to maintain T3 levels even though T4 levels are reduced, for example through increased conversion of T4 to T3 by deiodinases.

Evidence Supporting this KER

When serum thyroxine (T4) levels are decreased, less T4 is available for conversion to the more biologically active triiodothyronine (T3). It is plausible to assume that while some thyroid hormone (TH) disrupting mechanisms can immediately affect T3 levels, including deiodinase inhibition, other mechanisms reduce T4 levels, for example through inhibition of TH synthesis, leading to decreased T3 levels.

• A decrease in whole-body T4 and T3 was observed in zebrafish exposed to methimazole from fertilization until the age of 21 and 32 days and to propylthiouracil until the age of 14, 21 and 32 days (Stinckens et al., 2020). Additionally, a strong correlation was observed between T4 and T3 levels. Both compounds are thyroperoxidase inhibitors expected to inhibit thyroid hormone synthesis.
• A dose-dependent decrease in whole-body T4 and T3 was observed in zebrafish exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluoropolyether carboxylic acids from fertilization until the age of 5 days (Wang et al., 2020). The exact mechanisms by which PFAS disrupt the thyroid hormone system remain uncertain.
• While T4 measurements could not be acquired in fathead minnows exposed to 1 mg/L 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, for 14 days, a significant decrease in T3 was observed (Nelson et al., 2016). The decreased T3 levels were likely the result of reduced T4 synthesis.

• Since in fish early life stages THs are typically measured on a whole body level, it is currently uncertain whether TH level changes occur at the serum and/or tissue level. Pending more dedicated studies, whole body TH levels are considered a proxy for serum TH levels.
• This key event relationship is not always evident. This could be due to feedback/compensatory mechanisms that in some cases seem to be able to maintain T3 levels even though T4 levels are reduced, for example through increased conversion of T4 to T3 by deiodinases. Examples of studies showing reduced T4 levels in the absence of reduced T3 levels:
  • Zebrafish exposed to 0.35 mg/L 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, through 32 dpf showed decreased whole-body T4, but T3 levels showed particularly large variation and overall were not significantly decreased (Stinckens et al., 2016).
  • Although T4 content of 28 dpf larval fathead minnows exposed to 32 or 100 µg/l methimazole, a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, was reduced, these fish showed no change in whole body T3 content (Crane et al., 2006). Significantly higher T3/T4 ratios in fish held in 100 µg/l methimazole suggest an increased conversion of T4 to T3 or reduced degradation and conjugation during continued exposure to methimazole

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

Stinckens et al. (2020, supplementary information) showed a significant linear relationship between whole body T3 and T4 concentrations at 21 and 32 days post fertilization after continuous exposure of zebrafish to methimazole and propylthiouracil, two inhibitors of TH synthesis.

This key event relationship is not always evident. This could be due to feedback/compensatory mechanisms that in some cases seem to be able to maintain T3 levels even though T4 levels are reduced, for example through increased conversion of T4 to T3 by deiodinases. Examples of studies showing reduced T4 levels in the absence of reduced T3 levels:

• Zebrafish exposed to 0.35 mg/L 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, through 32 dpf showed decreased whole-body T4, but T3 levels showed particularly large variation and overall were not significantly decreased (Stinckens et al., 2016).
• Although T4 content of 28 dpf larval fathead minnows exposed to 32 or 100 µg/l methimazole, a thyroperoxidase inhibitor, was reduced, these fish showed no change in whole body T3 content (Crane et al., 2006). Significantly higher T3/T4 ratios in fish held in 100 µg/l methimazole suggest an increased conversion of T4 to T3 or reduced degradation and conjugation during continued exposure to methimazole

This relationship depends on the MIE that is causing the decrease in T3. For example, deiodinase inhibition results in reduced activation of T4 to T3 and thus in reduced T3 levels; increased T4 levels have been observed, probably as a compensatory mechanism in response to the lower T3 levels. For example, Cavallin et al. (2017) exposed fathead minnows to iopanoic acid, a deiodinase inhibitor, and observed T4 increases together with T3 decreases.

References

Cavallin, J.E., Ankley, G.T., Blackwell, B.R., Blanksma, C.A., Fay, K.A., Jensen, K.M., Kahl, M.D., Knapen, D., Kosian, P.A., Poole, S.T., Randolph, E.C., Schroeder, A.L., Vergauwen, L., Villeneuve, D.L., 2017. Impaired swim bladder inflation in early life stage fathead minnows exposed to a deiodinase inhibitor, iopanoic acid. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 36, 2942-2952.

Crane, H.M., Pickford, D.B., Hutchinson, T.H., Brown, J.A., 2006. The effects of methimazole on development of the fathead minnow, pimephales promelas, from embryo to adult. Toxicological Sciences 93, 278-285.

Hernandez-Mariano JA, Torres-Sanchez L, Bassol-Mayagoitia S, Escamilla-Nunez M, Cebrian ME, Villeda-Gutierrez EA, Lopez-Rodriguez G, Felix-Arellano EE, Blanco-Munoz J. 2017. Effect of exposure to p,p '-dde during the first half of pregnancy in the maternal thyroid profile of female residents in a mexican floriculture area. Environmental Research. 156:597-604.

Liu XS, Cai Y, Wang Y, Xu SH, Ji K, Choi K. 2019. Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (tdcpp) and triphenyl phosphate (tpp) on sex-dependent alterations of thyroid hormones in adult zebrafish. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 170:25-32.

Nelson, K., Schroeder, A., Ankley, G., Blackwell, B., Blanksma, C., Degitz, S., Flynn, K., Jensen, K., Johnson, R., Kahl, M., Knapen, D., Kosian, P., Milsk, R., Randolph, E., Saari, T., Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Villeneuve, D., 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part I: Fathead minnow. Aquatic Toxicology 173, 192-203.

Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Blackwell, B.R., Anldey, G.T., Villeneuve, D.L., Knapen, D., 2020. Effect of Thyroperoxidase and Deiodinase Inhibition on Anterior Swim Bladder Inflation in the Zebrafish. Environmental Science & Technology 54, 6213-6223.

Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Schroeder, A., Maho, W., Blackwell, B., Witters, H., Blust, R., Ankley, G., Covaci, A., Villeneuve, D., Knapen, D., 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part II: Zebrafish. Aquatic Toxicology 173, 204-217.

Wang, J.X., Shi, G.H., Yao, J.Z., Sheng, N., Cui, R.N., Su, Z.B., Guo, Y., Dai, J.Y., 2020. Perfluoropolyether carboxylic acids (novel alternatives to PFOA) impair zebrafish posterior swim bladder development via thyroid hormone disruption. Environment International 134.

Webster GM, Venners SA, Mattman A, Martin JW. 2014. Associations between perfluoroalkyl acids (pfass) and maternal thyroid hormones in early pregnancy: A population-based cohort study. Environmental Research. 133:338-347.

Relationship: 2373: Decreased, Triiodothyronine (T3) in serum leads to Altered, retinal layer structure

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Life-stage applicability: Most studies on TH-regulated retinal structure are performed during vertebrate development. There is evidence of the impact of reduced T3 (caused by inhibition of thyroperoxidase) on retinal layer structure at 48, 66, 72, 96 and 120 hpf during zebrafish embryo-eleutheroembryo development (Baumann and others 2016; Komoike and others 2013; Reider and Connaughton 2014).

Taxonomic applicability: The visual system of the zebrafish follows the typical organisation of vertebrates and is often used as a model to study human eye diseases. Although there are some differences in eye structure between zebrafish and humans, it is plausible to assume that TH levels are important for healthy eye development across all vertebrates.

Sex applicability: Zebrafish are undifferentiated gonochorists since both sexes initially develop an immature ovary (Maack and Segner, 2003). Immature ovary development progresses until approximately the onset of the third week. Later, in female fish immature ovaries continue to develop further, while male fish undergo transformation of ovaries into testes. Final transformation into testes varies among male individuals, however finishes usually around 6 weeks post fertilization. Effects on retinal layers resulting from TH level changes during early development are therefore expected to be independent of sex.

Key Event Relationship Description

Although the exact mechanisms need further investigation, studies show that thyroid hormones (THs) are required for healthy eye development in vertebrates (Wester et al. 1990, Suliman & Novales Flamarique 2013, Deveau et al., 2019) and it has been described that retinal development, photoreceptor differentiation and colour vision are directly regulated by THs. Not only in zebrafish (Bertrand et al. 2007), but also in mice (Ng et al. 2001) and chickens (Trimarchi et al. 2008), THs are directly linked to the transcription of essential visual opsins and the differentiation of retinal cells, as well as the overall structure of the retina, which is essential for proper functioning. Therefore, decreased triidothyronine (T3) levels in serum during eye development are likely to lead to structural and morphological alterations of the eyes.

Evidence Supporting this KER

THs, TH receptors, and deiodinase (DIO) enzymes are important for eye and retinal development in vertebrates. Dio enzymes activate and inactivate THs, consequently playing a central role in regulating TH levels in target tissues. In zebrafish, TH receptors and dio enzymes have been localized in the retina from 24 hpf onwards, probably regulating the differentiation of retinal structures and photoreceptors. It is known from amphibians that when TH levels start to rise at the beginning of metamorphosis, the morphology of the eyes starts changing. In chicken, the developing eye shows a dynamic expression pattern of Deiodinase 2 (DIO2) and Deiodinase 3 (DIO3), probably regulating photoreceptor differentiation and cornea development (reviewed by Darras 2015).

There is ample evidence across vertebrates that THs have an influence on development of the retinal layer structure:

• Baumann (2016) described alterations in eye structure, size and pigmentation in PTU- (6-n-propylthouracil is a classic positive control for inhibition of TPO, reduced TH levels) and TBBPA- (TR activation) treated zebrafish embryos.

• Komoike et al. (2013) exposed zebrafish embryos to 10 mM methimazole (a TPO inhibitor that is expected to result in lower TH levels) and observed moderately disrupted retinal structure with apoptosis of renital cells already at 48 hpf and more severely disrupted retinal structure at 72 hpf.

• Besson et al. (2020) used pharmacological treatments (T3 + iopanoic acid (IOP), NH3, Chlorpyrifos (CPF)) to highlight the role that thyroid hormones (TH) play in sensory development in metamorphosing convict surgeonfish. They found out that co-exposure to +1.5 °C and CPF5 significantly decreased T4 and T3 levels (43% and 26%, respectively) and N3-treated fish experienced repressed sensory development, at both day 2 and day 5 for the retina. This study highlights that short-term exposure to acute anthropogenic stressors has adverse consequences for the development, behavior, and survival of metamorphosing fish by affecting their TH endocrine function.

• Bhumika et al. (2014) found that lowering T3 signaling through exposure to different chemicals accelerates optic tectum reinnervation following optiv nerve crush in zebrafish and that this is accompanied by a more rapid resolution of the inflammatory response.

• Using genetic experiments Duval and Allison (2018) showed that disruption of thyroid receptors as well as disruption of cone development factors such as gdf6a and tbx2b lead to altered photoreceptor structure.

• Reider and Connaughton (2014) exposed zebrafish embryos to methimazole (MMI), a TPO inhibitor that is expected to result in lower TH levels, until 66, 70 or 72 hpf and analysed the retina at 72 hpf. They observed a reduced ganglion cell layer (GCL) diameter in embryos exposed until 66 hpf, but not in embryos exposed until 70 or 72 hpf. The thickness of the GCL was decreased in larvae exposed to MMI until 66 hpf compared to controls. An increase in GCL thickness was observed at 70 hpf, followed by a decrease in thickness at 72 hpf (p < 0.05). IPL thickness measurements also showed the smallest value in retinas exposed to MMI until 66 hpf.

• Gamborino (2000) analysed eye development in a rat model of congenital-neonatal hypothyroidism (HG), induced by combined chemical-surgical thyroidectomy. Histopathological analyses of the eyes of TH-deficient animals revealed decrease in photoreceptor and ganglion cell layer thickness, a delay in photoreceptor outer segment morphogenesis and significantly lower values for ganglion cell nuclear volumes and nuclear pore density.

• Gan et al. (2010) showed that thyroid hormones accelerate opsin expression in differentiating cones and induce the opsin
  switch in differentiated single cones. The results show, that Propylthiouracil, a pharmacological inhibitor of thyroid hormone synthesis, repressed the opsin switch. Thyroid hormone is required for opsin switching in the retina of salmonid fishes.

• Houbrechts (2016) performed deiodinase knockdown in zebrafish embryos and observed reduced eye size, disturbed retinal lamination and strong reduction in rods and all four cone types. Defects were more prominent and persistent in D3-deficient fish, probably due to increased T3 signalling.

• Wang et al. (2017) performed rescue experiments with the thyroid disruptors paclobutrazol (PBZ) and retinoic acid (RA). They showed that PBZ dramatically reduces photoreceptor proliferation. Co-treatment of PBZ with RA, or post-treatment of PBZ-treated embryos with RA, partially rescues photoreceptor cells, revealed by expression levels of marker proteins and by retinal cell proliferation.

There are some gaps in our knowledge about how TH levels affect the eyes of already fully developed organisms and/or whether they have similarly serious effects on the retinal layers. It can be assumed that the effects, if any, are weaker. 
Also, the molecular process of how a lower TH level leads to disturbances of the layers in the eye is not yet fully understood. 
There is little mammalian data on this KER. 

Also, studies (Reider et al. 2014) found that layer thickness varied across the ages suggesting that these retinal layers are differentially sensitive to for example MMI and/or that there are different critical periods of sensitiv ity in retinal tissue.

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

• One feedback loop mechanism could be triggered by iodine deficiency or inhibition of iodine uptake. It appears probably that the inhibition increases the secretion of Thyroid stimulating hormone, which could stimulate the expression of the NIS-transporter. This increase in TSH could shift the ratio in favour of T3.

References

Baumann L, Ros A, Rehberger K, Neuhauss SCF, Segner H. 2016. Thyroid disruption in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae: Different molecular response patterns lead to impaired eye development and visual functions. Aquatic Toxicology 172:44-55.

Besson, M., Feeney, W. E., Moniz, I., François, L., Brooker, R. M., Holzer, G., Metian, M., Roux, N., Laudet, V., & Lecchini, D. (2020). Anthropogenic stressors impact fish sensory development and survival via thyroid disruption. Nature Communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17450-8

Bhumika, S., & Darras, V. M. (2014). Role of thyroid hormones in different aspects of nervous system regeneration in vertebrates. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 203, 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.03.017

Duval, M. G., & Allison, W. T. (2018). Photoreceptor progenitors depend upon coordination of gdf6a, thrβ, and tbx2b to generate precise populations of cone photoreceptor subtypes. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 59(15), 6089–6101. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.18-24461

Darras VM, Houbrechts AM, Van Herck SLJ. Intracellular thyroid hormone metabolism as a local regulator of nuclear thyroid hormone receptor-mediated impact on vertebrate development. Biochim Biophys Acta - Gene Regul Mech. 2015;1849(2):130-141. doi:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.05.004

Gan, K. J., & Flamarique, I. N. (2010). Thyroid hormone accelerates opsin expression during early photoreceptor differentiation and induces opsin switching in differentiated TRα-expressing cones of the salmonid retina. Developmental Dynamics, 239(10), 2700–2713. https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.22392

Houbrechts AM, Delarue J, Gabriëls IJ, Sourbron J, Darras VM. Permanent deiodinase type 2 Deficiency strongly perturbs zebrafish development, growth, and fertility. Endocrinology. 2016;157(9):3668-3681. doi:10.1210/en.2016-1077

Komoike Y, Matsuoka M, Kosaki K. 2013. Potential Teratogenicity of Methimazole: Exposure of Zebrafish Embryos to Methimazole Causes Similar Developmental Anomalies to Human Methimazole Embryopathy. Birth Defects Research Part B-Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology 98(3):222-229.

Gamborino MJ, Sevilla-Romero E, Muñoz A, Hernández-Yago J, Renau-Piqueras J, Pinazo-Durán MD. Role of thyroid hormone in craniofacial and eye development using a rat model. Ophthalmic Res. 2001;33(5):283-291. doi:10.1159/000055682

Reider M, Connaughton VP. 2014. Effects of Low-Dose Embryonic Thyroid Disruption and Rearing Temperature on the Development of the Eye and Retina in Zebrafish. Birth Defects Research Part B-Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology 101(5):347-354.

Quesada-García A, Encinas P, Valdehita A, et al. Thyroid active agents T3 and PTU differentially affect immune gene transcripts in the head kidney of rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss). Aquat Toxicol. 2016;174:159-168. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.02.016

Wang, W. Der, Hsu, H. J., Li, Y. F., & Wu, C. Y. (2017). Retinoic acid protects and rescues the development of zebrafish embryonic retinal photoreceptor cells from exposure to paclobutrazol. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010130

Relationship: 2374: Altered, retinal layer structure leads to Altered, Visual function

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic applicability: The visual system of the zebrafish follows the typical organisation of vertebrates and is often used as a model to study human eye diseases. Although there are some differences in eye structure between zebrafish and humans, it is plausible to assume that a functioning eye structure is important for visual function across all vertebrates and invertebrates that have eyes.

Life stage applicability: The first visual responses based on retinal functionality appear around 70 hpf in zebrafish (Schmitt and Dowling 1999). It is plausible to assume that alterations of the eye structure would result in altered visual function across all life stages, but such alterations are most likely to occur during the development of the normal eye structure, which occurs in the embryo-eleutheroembryo phase.

Sex applicability: Zebrafish are undifferentiated gonochorists since both sexes initially develop an immature ovary (Maack and Segner, 2003). Immature ovary development progresses until approximately the onset of the third week. Later, in female fish immature ovaries continue to develop further, while male fish undergo transformation of ovaries into testes. Final transformation into testes varies among male individuals, however finishes usually around 6 weeks post fertilization. Effects on visual function resulting from altered eye structure during early development are therefore expected to be independent of sex.

Key Event Relationship Description

The structure of the vertebrate retina is well conserved and consists of the following layers: The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), the photoreceptor layer (PRL), the outer plexiform layer (OPL), the inner nuclear layer (INL), the inner plexiform layer (IPL) and the ganglion cell layer (GCL). Each of these layers has a specific function for the physiology of the visual system. The RPE serves to protect and maintain the photoreceptors and absorbs excess light. The photoreceptors in the PRL consist of a light-receiving outer segment (OS) and the inner segment (IS), which contains the cell bodies. They send their signals to the bipolar cells in the INL, which transmit the signal to the ganglion cells. These form the optic nerve and are responsible for transmitting signals to the optic nerves. In both plexiform layers, the retinal neurons form their synaptic connections (Bibliowicz et al. 2011).

To study the eye, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is at the forefront of many studies as a model organism. In zebrafish, eye development begins around 12 hpf (Houbrechts et al., 2016b) and by 72 hpf the layers of the retina are well developed (Malicki et al., 2016). Functional vision is established by 4-5 dpf (Brockerhoff, 2006; Chhetri et al., 2014).

Evidence Supporting this KER

It should be emphasised that all layers of the retina are interdependent. The RPE plays an essential role in the retinoid cycle for the photoreceptors (PRL), which perceive the light stimulus and transmit it via the bipolar cells to the ganglia (IPL), which form the optic nerve and transmit the signal to the optic nerve (Connaughton 2005). If these key sites of the phototransduction pathway are disrupted by, for example, endocrine disruptors, it stands to reason that there would be a significant impact on the optical sense and it is plausible that disorders of the eye structure can lead to visual disorders.
 

• Avallone et al. (2015) studied the effects of cadmium exposure on the vision of adult zebrafish. The morpho-cytological changes of the retina (Nerve fiber layer clearly thickened and vacuolated, presence of compact pycnotic nuclei, empty area, change in the thickness of pigmented retinal epithelium and at the level of cones inner segments, extended folds of threated retinae, presence of cell debris and/of blood cells in vitreal chamber) were investigated by light and electron microscopy, while the functionality of the cadmium-exposed retinas was assessed by re-illumination behavioural tests with white or coloured light. Cadmium toxicity was shown to cause significant cell degeneration and loss of organisation at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. These changes were directly related to functional responses, particularly by increasing light sensitivity of exposed fish.

• Baumann et al., 2016 used propylthiouracil (PTU) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) to disrupt the thyroid hormone system in zebrafish larvae. This exposure induced different molecular response patterns leading to impaired eye development (reduction of RPE cell diameter, pigmentation and eye size). Behavioural analyses showed that these larvae were also disrupted in their visual capacities, such as decrease in optokinetic response and increase in light preference of PTU-treated larvae.

• Chawla et al., 2018 showed that Retinoic Acid (RA) maintains function of neural crest-derived ocular and craniofacial structures in adult zebrafish. An increase in RA caused morphological changes: prognathic jaw and increased distance from the eyes to the gill. The inhibition of RA increased the head size. This change of dimensions of craniofacial structures and the change of RA levels showed decrease aqueous outflow from anterior segment of the eye together with the decrease of visual function (Optokinetic reflex test).

• Crowley-Perry et al. (2021) showed that transient, developmental exposure to sublethal and environmentally relevant concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) alters larval eye morphology and visually guided behaviors. BPA exposure increased eye diameters and the number of larvae displaying a positive optomotor response (OMR). 

• Flamarique et al. (2013b) used thyroid hormone treatment to transform the UV cones of young rainbow trout into blue cones and showed that this reduced the distances and angles at which prey were located (variables that are known indicators of foraging performance). Using optical measurements and photon-catch calculations, the study showed that control rainbow trouts perceived prey (Daphnia) with greater contrast compared to thyroid-hormone-treated fish, demonstrating that the presence of UV cones enhances foraging performance of young rainbow trout.

• Heijlen et al. (2014) showed that knockdown of Type 3 Iodothyronine Deiodinase severely perturbs both embryonic and early larval development in zebrafish. Furthermore, D3-knockdown larvae spent significantly less time moving, and both embryos and larvae exhibited perturbed escape responses, suggesting that D3 knockdown affects muscle development and/or functioning.

• Houbrechts et al. (2016) used a knockdown of deiodinase 1 and 2 genes in zebrafish embryos to induce transient hypothyroidism and observed decreased levels of mRNA coding for rod and cone opsins (at 3 dpf, days post fertilization) and a strong transient reduction in rods and all four cone types (at 3 dpf but no longer at 7 dpf) together with a transiently reduced response (increase of swimming activity) to light (4 dpf, but no longer at 7 dpf).

• Masuda et al. (2017) and Naujokas et al. (2013) found out that retinal diseases could eventually lead to vision loss and blindness, with signifying symptoms of inflammation and oxidative stress in retinal cells or tissue 

• Van Camp et al. (2018) showed that permanent deiodinase 2 deficiency in zebrafish resulted in a reduction of the number of R/G cones and rods that persisted through 7 dpf together with a reduced response to light (observed at 6 dpf).

• Walter et al. (2019) found out that developmental exposure to either T4 or T3 in zebrafish embyros altered photomotor behavior in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. T4 increased locomotor activity in response to sudden changes from light to dark. T3 caused similar patterns of changes in photomotor behavior at 3 and 4 dpf.  

• Frau et al. (2020) studied the consequences of differences in photoreceptor patterning across fish species. They concluded that species that are primarily nocturnal or live in low light environments such as the common sole and Senegalese sole have a less ordered mosaic cone pattern. A study of different fish species revealed that lattice-like patterning of the cone mosaic seems to improve visual acuity. Fish taxa that live in low light environments generally do not possess lattice-like cone mosaics.

Often, high variances occur in the results of behavioural studies because an organism has some compensatory mechanisms that allow it to survive.
It is more difficult to compare data from different laboratories in such experiments.
Similarly, extrapolating data from fish to mammalian data is particularly difficult for behavioural studies. 

References

Strauss O. The retinal pigment epithelium in visual function. Physiol Rev. 2005 Jul;85(3):845-81. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00021.2004. PMID: 15987797.

Avallone B, Crispino R, Cerciello R, Simoniello P, Panzuto R, Motta CM. Cadmium effects on the retina of adult Danio rerio. CR Biologies. 2015;338:40–7.

Baumann, L., Ros, A., Rehberger, K., Neuhauss, S. C. F., & Segner, H. (2016). Thyroid disruption in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae: Different molecular response patterns lead to impaired eye development and visual functions. Aquatic Toxicology, 172, 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.12.015

Bibliowicz, J., Tittle, R. K., & Gross, J. M. (2011). Toward a better understanding of human eye disease: Insights from the zebrafish, Danio rerio. In Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science(Vol. 100, Issue Table 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384878-9.00007-8

Brockerhoff, S. E. (2006). Measuring the optokinetic response of zebrafish larvae. Nature Protocols, 1(5), 2448–2451. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2006.255

Chawla, B., Swain, W., Williams, A. L., & Bohnsack, B. L. (2018). Retinoic acid maintains function of neural crest–derived ocular and craniofacial structures in adult zebrafish. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 59(5), 1924–1935. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.17-22845

Chhetri, J., Jacobson, G., & Gueven, N. (2014). Zebrafish-on the move towards ophthalmological research. Eye (Basingstoke), 28(4), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.2014.19

Crowley-Perry, M., Barberio, A. J., Zeino, J., Winston, E. R., & Connaughton, V. P. (2021). Zebrafish optomotor response and morphology are altered by transient, developmental exposure to bisphenol-a. Journal of Developmental Biology,9(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb9020014

Connaughton, V. P., Graham, D., & Nelson, R. (2004). Identification and morphological classification of horizontal, bipolar, and amacrine cells within the zebrafish retina. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 477(4), 371–385. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.20261

Flamarique, I. N. (2013). Opsin switch reveals function of the ultraviolet cone in fish foraging. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1752). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.2490

Frau, S., Novales Flamarique, I., Keeley, P. W., Reese, B. E., & Muñoz-Cueto, J. A. (2020). Straying from the flatfish retinal plan: Cone photoreceptor patterning in the common sole (Solea solea) and the Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Journal of Comparative Neurology, 528(14), 2283–2307. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.24893

Heijlen, M., Houbrechts, A. M., Bagci, E., Van Herck, S. L. J., Kersseboom, S., Esguerra, C. V., Blust, R., Visser, T. J., Knapen, D., & Darras, V. M. (2014). Knockdown of type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase severely perturbs both embryonic and early larval developme

Houbrechts, A. M., Vergauwen, L., Bagci, E., Van houcke, J., Heijlen, M., Kulemeka, B., Hyde, D. R., Knapen, D., & Darras, V. M. (2016). Deiodinase knockdown affects zebrafish eye development at the level of gene expression, morphology and function. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 424, 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2016.01.018

Malicki, J., Pooranachandran, N., Nikolaev, A., Fang, X., & Avanesov, A. (2016). Analysis of the retina in the zebrafish model. In Methods in Cell Biology(Vol. 134). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2016.04.017

Masuda, T., Shimazawa, M., Hara, H., 2017. Retinal diseases associated with oxidative stress and the effects of a free radical scavenger (edaravone). Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2017, 9208489.

Moreno-Marmol T, Cavodeassi F, Bovolenta P. 2018. Setting Eyes on the Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology 6.

Morris AC, Fadool JM. 2005. Studying rod photoreceptor development in zebrafish. Physiology & Behavior 86(3):306-313.

Naujokas, M.F., Anderson, B., Ahsan, H., et al., 2013. The broad scope of health effects from chronic arsenic exposure: update on a worldwide public health problem. Environ. Health Perspect. 121 (3), 295e302.

Raymond PA, Barthel LK, Curran GA. 1995. DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNING OF ROD AND CONE PHOTORECEPTORS IN EMBRYONIC ZEBRAFISH. Journal of Comparative Neurology 359(4):537-550.

Schmitt EA, Dowling JE. 1999. Early retinal development in the zebrafish, Danio rerio: Light and electron microscopic analyses. Journal of Comparative Neurology 404(4):515-536.

Vancamp P, Houbrechts AM, Darras VM. Insights from zebrafish deficiency models to understand the impact of local thyroid hormone regulator action on early development. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2019 Aug 1;279:45-52. doi: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.09.011. Epub 2018 Sep 19. PMID: 30244055.

Walter, K. M., Miller, G. W., Chen, X., Harvey, D. J., Puschner, B., & Lein, P. J. (2019). Changes in thyroid hormone activity disrupt photomotor behavior of larval zebrafish. Neurotoxicology, 74, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2019.05.008

Relationship: 2375: Altered, Visual function leads to Increased Mortality

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic applicability: The visual system of the fish (e.g., zebrafish) follows the typical organisation of vertebrates and is often used as a model to study human eye diseases. Although there are some differences, it is plausible to assume that visual function is important for survival across all vertebrates and invertebrates that have eyes.

Sex applicability: Zebrafish are undifferentiated gonochorists since both sexes initially develop an immature ovary (Maack and Segner, 2003). Immature ovary development progresses until approximately the onset of the third week. Later, in female fish immature ovaries continue to develop further, while male fish undergo transformation of ovaries into testes. Final transformation into testes varies among male individuals, however finishes usually around 6 weeks post fertilization. Effects on mortality resulting from altered visual function are therefore expected to be independent of sex.

Life stage applicability: It is plausible to assume that altered visual function of the eye would result in a higher mortality across all life stages. This could be especially true for the embryonic stages, the most sensitive stage of life. Vision plays a crucial role (in the early life stages) of most species, as eye development and establishment of functional vision is essential for perception of food or avoidance of predators for example (Carvalho et al., 2002).

Key Event Relationship Description

In animals, whatever the taxa, visual abilities are strongly linked to their lifestyle (feeding, avoidance of predators, movement, protection....). When these capacities are impaired, they lead to reduced fitness and are therefore strongly linked to a decrease in survival, particularly in the early stages of life.

Evidence Supporting this KER

Decreases in visual functions can have a strong impact on behavior, leading to changes in individual response and abilities in the environment, including, for example, perception of food or avoidance of predators. Variation in the visual system can also influence learning tasks when visual stimuli are used (Corral-López et al., 2017). 

Sensory drive has been implicated in speciation in various taxa, largely based on phenotype-environment correlations and signatures of selection in sensory genes, including view (Maan et al, 2017). 

It can be assumed that an animal which has difficulties in finding food and avoiding predators will have lower survival chances in wildlife.

Only very few studies are available in which it was demonstrated that decreased visual capacities lead to reduced survival of the organism. In general, mortality is rarely assessed but survival-reducing factors (feeding, predation) are mainly investigated. Here we consider the work about different toxicants that disrupt complex fish behaviors, such as predator avoidance, reproductive, and social behaviors. Toxicant exposure often completely eliminates the performance of behaviors that are essential to fitness and survival in natural ecosystems, frequently after exposures of lesser magnitude than those causing significant mortality (Brown et al., 2004).

• (Dehnert et al., 2019): In zebrafish, 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic exposure during eye development impaired visual behavior, i.e. reduced prey capture. Additonally, exposed fish showed reduced neural activity within the optic tectum following prey exposure. 

• (Besson et al., 2020) exposed metamorphosing convict surgeonfish to either chlorpyrifos or elevated levels of T3. Sensory organ development (eyes, lateral line, olfactory epithelium) was severely impaired and fish displayed reduced reaction to artificial predator cues. A predation test in an in situ arena revealed that T3-treated fish exhibited significantly higher survival than control fish, while chlorpyriphos-treated fish showed reduced survival. 

• (Babkiewicz et al., 2020) investigated the effect of temperature on the visual detection distance of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae by measuring the largest distance from a moving target that induced a neural response in the optic tectum. Fish raised in elevated temperatures showed reduced visual detection distance.

It is obvious that impaired vision leads to higher mortality, as the sense of sight is important for survival, and if it is impaired, feeding or escape becomes more difficult. However, studies investigating this connection are still very rare. Also, the natural conditions, which depend on many variables, are difficult to reproduce in the laboratory or to compare within different laboratories. 

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

Increase according to global health of the population (e.g on trout (Post and Parkinson, 2001)

References

Babkiewicz, E., Bazała, M., Urban, P., Maszczyk, P., Markowska, M., & Maciej Gliwicz, Z. (2020). The effects of temperature on the proxies of visual detection of Danio rerio larvae: observations from the optic tectum. Biology Open, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.1242/BIO.047779

Besson, M., Feeney, W. E., Moniz, I., François, L., Brooker, R. M., Holzer, G., Metian, M., Roux, N., Laudet, V., & Lecchini, D. (2020). Anthropogenic stressors impact fish sensory development and survival via thyroid disruption. Nature Communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17450-8

Brown, S. B., Adams, B. A., Cyr, D. G., & Eales, J. G. (2004). Contaminant effects on the teleost fish thyroid. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 23(7), 1680–1701. https://doi.org/10.1897/03-242

Carvalho, P. S. M., Noltie, D. B., & Tillitt, D. E. (2002). Ontogenetic improvement of visual function in the medaka Oryzias latipes based on an optomotor testing system for larval and adult fish. Animal Behaviour, 64(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2002.3028

Corral-López, A., Garate-Olaizola, M., Buechel, S. D., Kolm, N., & Kotrschal, A. (2017). On the role of body size, brain size, and eye size in visual acuity. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 71(12). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-017-2408-z

Dehnert, G. K., Karasov, W. H., & Wolman, M. A. (2019). 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid containing herbicide impairs essential visually guided behaviors of larval fish. Aquatic Toxicology, 209(October 2018), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.01.015

Relationship: 2013: Increased Mortality leads to Decrease, Population trajectory

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic: All organisms must survive to reproductive age in order to reproduce and sustain populations. The additional considerations related to survival made above are applicable to other fish species in addition to zebrafish and fathead minnows with the same reproductive strategy (r-strategist as described in the theory of MaxArthur and Wilson (1967). The impact of reduced survival on population size is even greater for k-strategists that invest more energy in a lower number of offspring.

Life stage: Density dependent effects start to play a role in the larval stage of fish when free-feeding starts (Hazlerigg et al., 2014).

Sex: This linkage is independent of sex.

Key Event Relationship Description

Increased mortality in the reproductive population may lead to a declining population. This depends on the excess mortality due to the applied stressor and the environmental parameters such as food availability and predation rate. Most fish species are r-strategist, meaning they produce a lot of offspring instead of investing in parental care. This results in natural high larval mortality causing only a small percentage of the larvae to survive to maturity. If the excess larval mortality due to a stressor is small, the population dynamics might result in constant population size. Should the larval excess be more significant, or last on the long-term, this will affect the population. To calculate the long-term persistence of the population, population dynamic models should be used.

Evidence Supporting this KER

Survival rate is an obvious determinant of population size and is therefore included in population modeling (e.g., Miller et al., 2020).

• Survival to reproductive maturity is a parameter of demographic significance. Assuming resource availability (i.e., food, habitat, etc.) is not limiting to the extant population, sufficient mortality in the reproductive population may ultimately lead to declining population trajectories.
• Under some conditions, reduced larval survival may be compensated by reduced predation and increased food availability, and therefore not result in population decline (Stige et al., 2019).

• According to empirical data, combined with population dynamic models, feeding larvae are the crucial life stage in zebrafish (and other r-strategists) for the regulation of the population. (Schäfers et al., 1993)
• In fathead minnow, natural survival of early life stages has been found to be highly variable and influential on population growth (Miller and Ankley, 2004)
• Rearick et al. (2018) used linked data from behavioural assays to survival trials and applied a modelling approach to quantify changes in antipredator escape performance of larval fathead minnows in order to predict changes in population abundance. This work was done in the context of exposure to an environmental oestrogen. Expsoed fish had delayed response times and slower escape speeds, and were more susceptible to predation. Population modelling showed that his can result in population decline.
• In the context of fishing and fisheries, ample evidence of a link between increased mortality and a decrerase of population size has been given. Important insights can result from the investigation of optimum modes of fishing that allow for maintaining a population (Alekseeva and Rudenko, 2018). Jacobsen and Essington (2018) showed the impact of varying predation mortality on forage fish populations.
• Boreman (1997) reviewed methods for comparing the population-level effects of mortality in fish populations induced by pollution or fishing.

• The extent to which larval mortality affects population size could depend on the fraction of surplus mortality compared to a natural situation.

• There are scenarios in which individual mortality may not lead to declining population size. These include instances where populations are limited by the availability of habitat and food resources, which can be replenished through immigration. Effects of mortality in the larvae can be compensated by reduced competition for resources (Stige et al., 2019).

• The direct impact of pesticides on migration behavior can be difficult to track in the field, and documentation of mortality during migration is likely underestimated (Eng 2017).

References

Alekseeva SM, Rudenko AI. 2018. Modeling of optimum fishing population. Marine Intellectual Technologies. 3(4):142-146.

Beaudouin, R., Goussen, B., Piccini, B., Augustine, S., Devillers, J., Brion, F., Pery, A.R., 2015. An individual-based model of zebrafish population dynamics accounting for energy dynamics. PloS one 10, e0125841.

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Relationship: 366: Thyroperoxidase, Inhibition leads to T4 in serum, Decreased

AOPs Referencing Relationship

Evidence Supporting Applicability of this Relationship

Taxonomic: Use of TPO inhibitors as anti-hyperthyroidism drugs in humans and pets (Emiliano et al., 2010; Trepanier, 2006) and effects of these drugs on serum TH concentrations in rats (US EPA, 2005), amphibian, fish and avian species (Coady et al., 2010; Grommen et al., 2011; Nelson et al., 2016; Rosebrough et al., 2006; Stinckens et al.; 2020; Tietge et al., 2012), strongly supports a causative linkage between inhibition of TPO and decreased serum T4 across species. Therefore, this KER is plausibly applicable across vertebrate species. Therefore, this KER is plausibly applicable across vertebrates.

Life stage: Applicability to certain life stages may depend on the species and their dependence on maternally transferred thyroid hormones during the earliest phases of development. The earliest life stages of teleost fish rely on maternally transferred THs to regulate certain developmental processes until embryonic TH synthesis is active (Power et al., 2001). As a result, TPO inhibition is not expected to decrease TH synthesis during these earliest stages of development. In zebrafish, Opitz et al. (2011) showed the formation of a first thyroid follicle at 55 hours post fertilization (hpf), Chang et al. (2012) showed a first significant TH increase at 120 hpf and Walter et al. (2019) showed clear TH production already at 72 hpf but did not analyse time points between 24 and 72 hpf. In fathead minnows, a significant increase of whole body thyroid hormone levels was already observed between 1 and 2 dpf, which corresponds to the appearance of the thyroid anlage at 35 hpf prior to the first observation of thyroid follicles at 58 hpf (Wabuke-Bunoti and Firling, 1983). Therefore, iIt is still uncertain when exactly embryonic TH synthesis is activated and how this determines sensitivity to TH disruptors.

Sex: The KE is plausibly applicable to both sexes. Thyroid hormones are essential in both sexes and the components of the HPT-axis are identical in both sexes. There can however be sex-dependent differences in the sensitivity to the disruption of thyroid hormone levels and the magnitude of the response. In humans, females appear more susceptible to hypothyroidism compared to males when exposed to certain halogenated chemicals (Hernandez‐Mariano et al., 2017; Webster et al., 2014). In adult zebrafish, Liu et al. (2019) showed sex-dependent changes in thyroid hormone levels and mRNA expression of regulatory genes including corticotropin releasing hormone (crh), thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) and deiodinase 2 after exposure to organophosphate flame retardants. The underlying mechanism of any sex-related differences remains unclear.

Key Event Relationship Description

Thyroperoxidase (TPO) is the enzyme that catalyzes iodine organification of thyroglobulin to produce thyroglobulin (Tg)-bound T3 and T4 in the lumen of thyroid follicles. Tg-bound THs are endocytosed across the apical lumen-follicular cell membrane, undergo thyroglobulin proteolysis, followed by hormone section into the blood stream (see Taurog, 2005 for review). This indirect KER describes the relationship of TPO inhibition to reduced circulating levels of thyroid hormone (TH) in the serum.

Evidence Supporting this KER

The weight of evidence linking thyroperoxidase inhibition to reductions in circulating serum TH is strong. Many studies support this basic linkage. There is no inconsistent data.

It is a well-accepted fact that inhibition of the only enzyme capable of synthesizing THs, TPO, results in subsequent decrease in serum TH concentrations.  A large amount of evidence from clinical and animal studies clearly support the commonly accepted dogma that inhibition of TPO leads to decreased serum THs. 

The majority of research in support of this KER involve exposure to known TPO inhibitors and measurement of serum hormones. There are many in vivo studies that link decreases in serum TH concentrations with exposure to xenobiotics that inhibit thyroperoxidase (TPO) in mammals (Brucker-Davis, 1998; Hurley, 1998; Boas et al., 2006; Crofton, 2008; Kohrle, 2008; Pearce and Braverman, 2009; Murk et al., 2013). 

While these studies support the connection between exposure to a known TPO inhibitor and decreased TH, many of these studies do not empirically measure TPO inhibition or decreased TH synthesis. Thus, many studies support the indirect linkage between TPO inhibition (for chemicals identified as TPO inhibitors in in vivo or ex vivo studies) and decreased TH, with the well accepted theory that these proceed via decreased TH synthesis. That exposure to TPO inhibitors leads to decreased serum TH concentrations, via decreased TH synthesis is strongly supported by decades of mechanistic research in a variety of species.

This indirect relationship is also evidenced by the use of clinically-relevant anti-hyperthyroidism drugs, MMI and PTU (Laurberg & Anderson, 2014; Sundaresh et al., 2013). These drugs are both recognized TPO inhibitors and are part of a standard drug-based regimen of care for clinically hyperthyroid patients including those with Grave's disease. Serum THs are measured as the bioindicator of successful treatment with anti-hyperthyroidism drugs; the actual decrease in TH synthesis in the thyroid gland is implied in the efficacious use of these drugs (Trepanier, 2006).

In rats, MMI and PTU are often used as control chemicals to decrease serum THs to study biological phenomena related to disruption of TH homeostasis (many examples, including Zoeller and Crofton, 2005; Morreale de Escobar et al, 2004; Schwartz et al., 1997; Herwig et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2013; Pathak et al., 2011). Further, MMI is recommended as a positive control for use in the Amphibian Metamorphosis (Frog) Assay within Tier 1 of the U.S. EPA Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (US EPA, 2009; Coady et al., 2010), an assay used to evaluate the potential for chemicals to disrupt TH homeostasis. PTU has been suggested as positive control chemical in the guidance for the Comparative Developmental Thyroid Assay (US EPA, 2005), a non-guideline assay used to evaluate the potential for chemicals to disrupt TH homeostasis during gestation and early neonatal development.

Additionally, evidence is available from studies investigating responses to TPO inhibitors in fish. For example, Stinckens et al. (2020) showed reduced whole body T4 concentrations in zebrafish larvae exposed to 50 or 100 mg/L methimazole, a potent TPO inhibitor, from immediately after fertilization until 21 or 32 days of age. Exposure to 37 or 111 mg/L propylthiouracil also reduced T4 levels after exposure up to 14, 21 and 32 days in the same study. Walter et al. (2019) showed that propylthiouracil had no effect on T4 levels in 24h old zebrafish, but decreased T4 levels of 72h old zebrafish. This difference is probably due to the onset of embryonic TH production between the age of 24 and 72 hours (Opitz et al., 2011). Stinckens et al. (2016) showed that exposure to 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), an environmentally relevant TPO inhibitor, decreased whole body T4 levels in continuously exposed 5 and 32 day old zebrafish larvae. A high concentration of MBT also decreased whole body T4 levels in 6 day old fathead minnows, but recovery was observed at the age of 21 days although the fish were kept in the exposure medium (Nelson et al., 2016). Crane et al. (2006) showed decreased T4 levels in 28 day old fathead minnows continuously exposed to 32 or 100 µg/L methimazole.

Thus, an indirect key event relationship between TPO inhibition and decreased serum THs is strongly supported by a large database of clinical medicine and investigative research with whole animals (with a great deal of supporting evidence in rats and frogs).

Temporal Evidence: In mammals, the temporal nature of this KER is applicable to all life stages, including development (Seed et al., 2005). The qualitative impact of thyroperoxidase inhibition on serum hormones is similar across all ages in mammals. The temporal nature of the impact on serum THs by TPO inhibitors in developmental exposure studies is evidenced by the duration of exposure and developmental age (Goldey et al., 1995; Ahmed et al., 2010; Tietge et al., 2010), as well as recovery after cessation of exposure (Cooke et al., 1993; Goldey et al., 1995; Sawin et al., 1998; Axelstad et al., 2008; Shibutani et al., 2009; Lasley and Gilbert, 2011). The temporal relationship between TPO inhibitor exposure duration and serum hormone decreases in adult organisms has been widely demonstrated (e.g., Hood et al., 1999; Mannisto et al., 1979). In addition, MMI and PTU induced decreases in serum T4 are alleviated by thyroid hormone replacement in both fetal and postnatal age rats (Calvo et al., 1990; Sack et al., 1995; Goldey and Crofton, 1998). Computational modeling of the thyroid also provides evidence for the indirect temporal relationship between these two KEs (e.g., Degon et al., 2008; Fisher et a., 2013).

In oviparous fish such as zebrafish and fathead minnow, the nature of this KER depends on the life stage since the earliest stages of embryonic development rely on maternal thyroid hormones transferred to the eggs. Embryonic thyroid hormone synthesis is activated later during embryo-larval development. (See Domain of applicability)

Dose-Response Evidence: Empirical data is available from enough studies in animals treated with TPO inhibitors during development to make it readily accepted dogma that a dose-response relationship exists between TPO inhibition and serum TH concentrations.  Again, these studies do not empirically measure TPO inhibition or decreased TH synthesis, but rely on the strong support of decades of mechanistic research in a variety of species of the causative relationship between these KEs.  Examples of dose-responsive changes in TH concentrations following developmental exposure to TPO inhibitors include studies a variety of species, including: rodents (Blake and Henning, 1985; Goldey et al., 1995; Sawin et al., 1998); frogs (Tietge et al., 2013); fish tissue levels (Elsalini and Rohr, 2003.); and, chickens (Wishe et al., 1979). Computational modeling of the thyroid also provides evidence for the indirect dose-response relationship between these two KEs (e.g., Leonard et al., 2016; Fisher et a., 2013).

There are no inconsistencies in this KER, but there are some uncertainties. The predominant uncertainty regarding the indirect key event relationship between inhibition of TPO activity and decreased serum T4 is the quantitative nature of this relationship, i.e., to what degree must TPO be inhibited in order to decrease serum T4 by a certain magnitude. Many animal (rat) studies typically employ relatively high exposures of TPO-inhibiting chemicals that result in hypothyroidism (severe decrements in T4 and T3). Thus, a dose-response relationship between TPO inhibition and decreased serum T4 is not typically defined. However, there are numerous publications demonstrating clear dose- and duration- dependent relationships between TPO inhibitors dose and reduced serum T3 and T4 in rodent models (see for example: Cooper et al., 1983; Hood et al., 1999; Goldey et al., 2005; Gilbert, 2011). The relationship between maternal and fetal levels of hormone following chemically-induced TPO inhibiton has not been well characterized and may differ based on kinetics. Reductions in serum TH in the fetus, in rat and human is derived a chemical’s effect on the maternal thyroid gland as well as the fetal thyroid gland.

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

The indirect linkage between exposure to known TPO inhibitors and decreased serum TH has not been defined quantitatively. The two key event relationships that mediate this relationship (TPO inhibition leading to decreased TH synthesis, and decreased TH synthesis leading to decreased serum TH) have been incorporated into some quantitative models. A quantitative biologically-based dose-response model for iodine deficiency in the rat includes relationships between thyroidal T4 synthesis and serum T4 concentrations in developing rats Fisher et al. (2013). Ekerot et al. (2012) modeled TPO, T3, T4 and TSH in dogs and humans based on exposure to myeloperoxidase inhibitors that also inhibit TPO and was has recently adapted for rat (Leonard et al., 2016). While the original model predicted serum TH and TSH levels as a function of oral dose, it was not used to explicitly predict the relationship between serum hormones and TPO inhibition, or thyroidal hormone synthesis. Leonard et al. (2016) recently incorporated TPO inhibition into the model. Degon et al (2008) developed a human thyroid model that includes TPO but does not make quantitative prediction of organification changes due to inhibition of the TPO enzyme.

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